Alan Turing
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"Turing"
redirects here. For other uses, see Turing (disambiguation).
Alan Turing |
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Turing aged 16 |
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Born |
23 June 1912 Maida Vale, London, England |
Died |
7 June 1954 (aged 41) Wilmslow, Cheshire, England |
Cause of death |
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Resting place |
Ashes scattered near Woking Crematorium[1] |
Residence |
Wilmslow, Cheshire, England |
Education |
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Alma mater |
·
King's College, Cambridge, (BA)(MA) ·
Princeton University (PhD) |
Known for |
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Awards |
Smith's Prize (1936) |
Scientific career |
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Fields |
·
Logic |
Institutions |
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Doctoral students |
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Influences |
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Signature |
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Alan Mathison Turing OBE FRS (/ˈtjʊərɪŋ/; 23 June 1912 – 7
June 1954) was an English mathematician, computer scientist, logician, cryptanalyst, philosopher, and theoretical biologist.[2] Turing was highly
influential in the development of theoretical computer science, providing a
formalisation of the concepts of algorithm and computation with the Turing machine, which can be considered
a model of a general-purpose computer.[7][8][9] Turing is widely
considered to be the father of theoretical computer science and artificial intelligence.[10] Despite these
accomplishments, he was never fully recognized in his home country during his
lifetime due to his homosexuality, which was then a crime
in the UK.
During the Second World War, Turing worked for
the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS)
at Bletchley
Park,
Britain's codebreaking centre that
produced Ultraintelligence. For a time
he led Hut 8, the section that was
responsible for German naval cryptanalysis. Here he devised a number of
techniques for speeding the breaking of German ciphers, including improvements
to the pre-war Polish bombemethod, an electromechanical machine that could
find settings for the Enigma machine. Turing played a pivotal
role in cracking intercepted coded messages that enabled the Allies to defeat
the Nazis in many crucial engagements, including the Battle of the Atlantic, and in so doing helped
win the war.[11][12] Counterfactual historyis difficult with respect
to the effect Ultra intelligence had on the length of the war,[13]but at the upper end it
has been estimated that this work shortened the war in Europe by more than two
years and saved over 14 million lives.[11]
After the war, Turing
worked at the National Physical Laboratory, where he designed
the ACE, among the first designs
for a stored-program computer. In 1948 Turing joined Max Newman's Computing Machine Laboratory at the Victoria University of Manchester, where he helped develop
the Manchester computers[14] and became
interested in mathematical biology. He wrote a paper on the
chemical basis of morphogenesis[3] and predicted oscillating chemical reactions such as the Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction, first observed in the
1960s.
Turing was prosecuted in
1952 for homosexual acts, when by the Labouchere Amendment, "gross
indecency" was a criminal offence in the UK. He accepted chemical castration treatment,
with DES, as an alternative to prison. Turing died
in 1954, 16 days before his 42nd birthday, from cyanide poisoning. An inquest determined
his death as suicide, but it has been noted that the known evidence is also
consistent with accidental poisoning.[15] In 2009, following
an Internet campaign, British Prime
Minister Gordon
Brown made
an official public apology on behalf of the
British government for "the appalling way he was treated". Queen Elizabeth II granted him a
posthumous pardon in 2013.[16][17][18] The Alan Turing law is now an informal
term for a 2017 law in the United Kingdom that retroactively pardoned men cautioned
or convicted under historical legislation that outlawed homosexual acts.[19]
Contents
o 1.4University
and work on computability
o 2.2Bombe
o 2.3Hut
8 and the naval Enigma
o 2.6Early
computers and the Turing test
o 2.7Pattern
formation and mathematical biology
o 3.2Death
o 3.3Government
apology and pardon
·
4Awards, honours,
and tributes
o 7.2Books
Early life and education[edit]
Family[edit]
Turing was born in Maida Vale, London,[2] while his father,
Julius Mathison Turing (1873–1947), was on leave from his position with
the Indian Civil Service (ICS) at Chatrapur, then in the Madras Presidency and presently
in Odisha state, in British India.[20][21]Turing's father was the
son of a clergyman, the Rev. John Robert Turing, from a Scottish family of
merchants that had been based in the Netherlands and included a baronet. Turing's mother,
Julius' wife, was Ethel Sara Turing (née Stoney 1881–1976),[2]daughter of Edward Waller
Stoney, chief engineer of the Madras Railways. The Stoneys were
a Protestant Anglo-Irish gentry family from
both County Tipperary and County Longford, while Ethel herself had
spent much of her childhood in County Clare.[22]
Julius' work with the ICS
brought the family to British India, where his grandfather had been a general
in the Bengal
Army.
However, both Julius and Ethel wanted their children to be brought up in
Britain, so they moved to Maida Vale,[23] London, where Alan
Turing was born on 23 June 1912, as recorded by a blue plaque on the outside of
the house of his birth,[24][25] later the Colonnade Hotel.[20][26] Turing had an elder
brother, John (the father of Sir John Dermot Turing, 12th Baronet of the Turing baronets).[27]
Turing's father's civil
service commission was still active and during Turing's childhood years
Turing's parents travelled between Hastings in England[28] and India, leaving
their two sons to stay with a retired Army couple. At
Hastings, Turing stayed at Baston Lodge, Upper Maze Hill, St Leonards-on-Sea, now marked with a blue
plaque.[29] The plaque was
unveiled on 23 June 2012, the centenary of Turing's birth.[30]
Very early in life,
Turing showed signs of the genius that he was later to display prominently.[31] His parents
purchased a house in Guildford in 1927, and Turing
lived there during school holidays. The location is also marked with a blue
plaque.[32]
School[edit]
Turing's parents enrolled
him at St Michael's, a day school at 20 Charles Road, St Leonards-on-Sea, at the age of six. The
headmistress recognised his talent early on, as did many of his subsequent
teachers.
Between January 1922 and
1926, Turing was educated at Hazelhurst Preparatory School, an independent
school in the village of Frant in Sussex
(now East
Sussex).[33] In 1926, at the age
of 13, he went on to Sherborne School, a boarding independent
school in the market town of Sherborne in Dorset. The first day of term
coincided with the 1926 General Strike in Britain, but he
was so determined to attend, that he rode his bicycle unaccompanied 60 miles
(97 km) from Southampton to Sherborne,
stopping overnight at an inn.[34]
Turing's natural
inclination towards mathematics and science did not earn him respect from some
of the teachers at Sherborne, whose definition of education placed more
emphasis on the classics. His headmaster wrote to
his parents: "I hope he will not fall between two stools. If he is to stay
at public school, he must aim at becoming educated. If he is to be
solely a Scientific Specialist, he is wasting his time at a public
school".[35] Despite this,
Turing continued to show remarkable ability in the studies he loved, solving
advanced problems in 1927 without having studied even elementary calculus. In 1928, aged 16,
Turing encountered Albert Einstein's work; not only did he
grasp it, but it is possible that he managed to deduce Einstein's questioning
of Newton's laws of motion from a text in
which this was never made explicit.[36]
Christopher
Morcom[edit]
At Sherborne, Turing
formed a significant friendship with fellow pupil Christopher Morcom (13 July
1911-13 February 1930), who has been described as Turing's "first
love". Their relationship provided inspiration in Turing's future
endeavours, but it was cut short by Morcom's death, in February 1930, from complications
of bovine tuberculosis, contracted after
drinking infected cow's milk some years previously.[37][38][39]
The event caused Turing
great sorrow. He coped with his grief by working that much harder on the topics
of science and mathematics that he had shared with Morcom. In a letter to
Morcom's mother Turing said:
I am sure I could not
have found anywhere another companion so brilliant and yet so charming and
unconceited. I regarded my interest in my work, and in such things as astronomy
(to which he introduced me) as something to be shared with him and I think he
felt a little the same about me ... I know I must put as much energy if
not as much interest into my work as if he were alive, because that is what he
would like me to do.[40]
Some have speculated that
Morcom's death was the cause of Turing's atheism and materialism.[41] Apparently, at this
point in his life he still believed in such concepts as a spirit, independent
of the body and surviving death. In a later letter, also written to Morcom's
mother, Turing said:
Personally, I believe
that spirit is really eternally connected with matter but certainly not by the
same kind of body ... as regards the actual connection between spirit and
body I consider that the body [can] hold on to a 'spirit', whilst the body is
alive and awake the two are firmly connected. When the body is asleep I cannot
guess what happens but when the body dies, the 'mechanism' of the body, holding
the spirit is gone and the spirit finds a new body sooner or later, perhaps
immediately.[42]
University
and work on computability[edit]
After Sherborne, Turing
studied as an undergraduate from 1931 to 1934 at King's College, Cambridge,[2] where he was
awarded first-class honours in mathematics. In 1935, at the age of 22, he was
elected a fellow of King's on the
strength of a dissertation in which he proved the central limit theorem.[43] Unknown to the
committee, the theorem had already been proven, in 1922, by Jarl Waldemar Lindeberg.[44]
In 1936, Turing published
his paper "On Computable Numbers,
with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem" (1936).[45] In this paper,
Turing reformulated Kurt Gödel's 1931 results on the
limits of proof and computation, replacing Gödel's universal arithmetic-based
formal language with the formal and simple hypothetical devices that became
known as Turing
machines.
The Entscheidungsproblem (decision problem)
was originally posed by German mathematician David Hilbert in 1928. Turing
proved that his "universal computing machine" would be capable of
performing any conceivable mathematical computation if it were representable as
an algorithm. He went on to prove
that there was no solution to the decision problem by first showing
that the halting
problem for
Turing machines is undecidable: It is not possible to
decide algorithmically whether a Turing machine will ever halt.
King's College, Cambridge, where Turing was a
student in 1931 and became a Fellow in 1935. The computer room is named after
him.
Although Turing's proof was published
shortly after Alonzo
Church's
equivalent proof using his lambda calculus,[46] Turing's approach
is considerably more accessible and intuitive than Church's.[47] It also included a
notion of a 'Universal Machine' (now known as a universal Turing machine), with the idea that
such a machine could perform the tasks of any other computation machine (as
indeed could Church's lambda calculus). According to the Church–Turing thesis, Turing machines and the
lambda calculus are capable of computing anything that is computable. John von Neumann acknowledged that
the central concept of the modern computer was due to Turing's paper.[48] To this day, Turing
machines are a central object of study in theory of computation.
From September 1936 to
July 1938, Turing spent most of his time studying under Church at Princeton University, in the second year as
a Jane Eliza Procter Visiting Fellow. In addition to his
purely mathematical work, he studied cryptology and also built three of four
stages of an electro-mechanical binary multiplier.[49] In June 1938, he
obtained his PhD from the Department of Mathematics at Princeton;[50] his
dissertation, Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals,[51][52] introduced the
concept of ordinal
logic and
the notion of relative computing, where Turing machines
are augmented with so-called oracles, allowing the study of
problems that cannot be solved by Turing machines. John von Neumann wanted to
hire him as his postdoctoral assistant, but he went back to
England.[53]
Career and research[edit]
When Turing returned to
Cambridge, he attended lectures given in 1939 by Ludwig Wittgenstein about the foundations of mathematics.[54] The lectures have
been reconstructed verbatim, including interjections from Turing and other
students, from students' notes.[55] Turing and Wittgenstein
argued and disagreed, with Turing defending formalism and Wittgenstein
propounding his view that mathematics does not discover any absolute truths,
but rather invents them.[56]
Cryptanalysis[edit]
During the Second World
War, Turing was a leading participant in the breaking of German ciphers
at Bletchley
Park.
The historian and wartime codebreaker Asa Briggs has said, "You
needed exceptional talent, you needed genius at Bletchley and Turing's was that
genius."[57] From September
1938, Turing had been working part-time with the GC&CS, the British codebreaking
organisation. He concentrated on cryptanalysis of the Enigma with Dilly Knox, a senior GC&CS
codebreaker.[58] Soon after the July
1939 Warsaw meeting at which
the Polish Cipher Bureau had provided the
British and French with the details of the wiring of Enigma rotors and their method of decrypting Enigma code messages, Turing
and Knox started to work on a less fragile approach to the problem.[59] The Polish method
relied on an insecure indicator procedure that the
Germans were likely to change, which they did in May 1940. Turing's approach
was more general, using crib-based decryption for which he produced
the functional specification of the bombe (an improvement of
the Polish Bomba).[60]
Two
cottages in the stable yard at Bletchley Park. Turing worked here in
1939 and 1940, before moving to Hut 8.
On 4 September 1939, the
day after the UK declared war on Germany, Turing reported to Bletchley Park,
the wartime station of GC&CS.[61] Specifying the
bombe was the first of five major cryptanalytical advances that Turing made
during the war. The others were: deducing the indicator procedure used by the
German navy; developing a statistical procedure for making much more efficient
use of the bombes dubbed Banburismus; developing a procedure
for working out the cam settings of the wheels of the Lorenz SZ 40/42 (Tunny)
dubbed Turingery and, towards the
end of the war, the development of a portable secure voice scrambler at Hanslope Park that was
codenamed Delilah.
By using statistical
techniques to optimise the trial of different possibilities in the code
breaking process, Turing made an innovative contribution to the subject. He
wrote two papers discussing mathematical approaches, titled The
Applications of Probability to Cryptography[62] and Paper
on Statistics of Repetitions,[63] which were of such
value to GC&CS and its successor GCHQ that they were not
released to the UK National Archives until April 2012,
shortly before the centenary of his birth. A GCHQ mathematician, "who
identified himself only as Richard," said at the time that the fact that
the contents had been restricted for some 70 years demonstrated their
importance, and their relevance to post-war cryptanalysis:[64]
[He] said the fact that
the contents had been restricted "shows what a tremendous importance it
has in the foundations of our subject". ... The papers detailed using
"mathematical analysis to try and determine which are the more likely
settings so that they can be tried as quickly as possible."
... Richard said that GCHQ had now "squeezed the juice" out of
the two papers and was "happy for them to be released into the public
domain".
Turing had a reputation
for eccentricity at Bletchley Park. He was known to his colleagues as
"Prof" and his treatise on Enigma was known as the "Prof's
Book".[65] According to
historian Ronald
Lewin, Jack Good, a cryptanalyst who
worked with Turing, said of his colleague:
In the first week of June
each year he would get a bad attack of hay fever, and he would cycle to the office
wearing a service gas mask to keep the pollen off. His bicycle had a fault: the
chain would come off at regular intervals. Instead of having it mended he would
count the number of times the pedals went round and would get off the bicycle
in time to adjust the chain by hand. Another of his eccentricities is that he
chained his mug to the radiator pipes to prevent it being stolen.[66]
While working at
Bletchley, Turing, who was a talented long-distance runner, occasionally ran the 40
miles (64 km) to London when he was needed for meetings,[67] and he was capable
of world-class marathon standards.[68][69] Turing tried out
for the 1948 British Olympic team, hampered by an injury. His tryout time for
the marathon was only 11 minutes slower than British silver medallist Thomas
Richards' Olympic race time of 2 hours 35 minutes. He was Walton Athletic
Club's best runner, a fact discovered when he passed
the group while running alone.[70][71][72]
In 1946, Turing was
appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) by King George VI for his wartime
services, but his work remained secret for many years.[73][74]
Bombe[edit]
Main
article: Bombe
Within weeks of arriving
at Bletchley Park,[61] Turing had
specified an electromechanical machine called the bombe, which could break
Enigma more effectively than the Polish bomba kryptologiczna, from which its name was
derived. The bombe, with an enhancement suggested by mathematician Gordon Welchman, became one of the
primary tools, and the major automated one, used to attack Enigma-enciphered
messages.[75]
A complete and working
replica of a bombe now at The National Museum of Computing on Bletchley Park
The bombe searched for
possible correct settings used for an Enigma message (i.e., rotor order, rotor
settings and plugboard settings) using a suitable crib: a fragment of
probable plaintext. For each possible
setting of the rotors (which had on the order of 1019 states, or 1022 states for the
four-rotor U-boat variant),[76] the bombe performed
a chain of logical deductions based on the crib, implemented electromechanically.[citation needed]
The bombe detected when a
contradiction had occurred and ruled out that setting, moving on to the next.
Most of the possible settings would cause contradictions and be discarded,
leaving only a few to be investigated in detail. A contradiction would occur
when an enciphered letter would be turned back into the same plaintext letter,
which was impossible with the Enigma. The first bombe was installed on 18 March
1940.[77]
By late 1941, Turing and
his fellow cryptanalysts Gordon Welchman, Hugh Alexander and Stuart Milner-Barry were frustrated.
Building on the work
of the Poles,
they had set up a good working system for decrypting Enigma signals, but their
limited staff and bombes meant they could not translate all the signals. In the
summer, they had considerable success, and shipping losses had fallen to under
100,000 tons a month; however, they badly needed more resources to keep abreast
of German adjustments. They had tried to get more people and fund more bombes
through the proper channels, but had failed.[78]
On 28 October they wrote
directly to Winston Churchill explaining their
difficulties, with Turing as the first named. They emphasised how small their
need was compared with the vast expenditure of men and money by the forces and
compared with the level of assistance they could offer to the forces.[78] As Andrew Hodges, biographer of Turing,
later wrote, "This letter had an electric effect."[79] Churchill wrote a
memo to General Ismay, which read:
"ACTION THIS DAY. Make sure they have all they want on extreme priority
and report to me that this has been done." On 18 November, the chief of
the secret service reported that every possible measure was being taken.[79] The cryptographers
at Bletchley Park did not know of the Prime Minister's response, but as
Milner-Barry recalled, "All that we did notice was that almost from that
day the rough ways began miraculously to be made smooth."[80] More than two
hundred bombes were in operation by the end of the war.[81]
Statue of Turing by Stephen Kettleat Bletchley Park,
commissioned by Sidney
Frank,
built from half a million pieces of Welsh slate.[82]
Hut
8 and the naval Enigma[edit]
Turing decided to tackle
the particularly difficult problem of German naval Enigma"because no one else
was doing anything about it and I could have it to myself".[83] In December 1939,
Turing solved the essential part of the naval indicator system, which was
more complex than the indicator systems used by the other services.[83][84]
That same night, he also
conceived of the idea of Banburismus, a sequential
statistical technique (what Abraham Wald later called sequential analysis) to assist in breaking
the naval Enigma, "though I was not sure that it would work in practice,
and was not, in fact, sure until some days had actually broken."[83] For this, he
invented a measure of weight of evidence that he called the ban. Banburismus could
rule out certain sequences of the Enigma rotors, substantially reducing the
time needed to test settings on the bombes.[citation needed]
Turing travelled to the
United States in November 1942[85] and worked with US
Navy cryptanalysts on the naval Enigma and bombe construction in Washington; he
also visited their Computing Machine
Laboratory in Dayton, Ohio.
Turing's reaction to the American
bombe design was far from enthusiastic:
The
American Bombe programme was to produce 336 Bombes, one for each wheel order. I
used to smile inwardly at the conception of Bombe hut routine implied by this
programme, but thought that no particular purpose would be served by pointing
out that we would not really use them in that way.
Their test (of
commutators) can hardly be considered conclusive as they were not testing for
the bounce with electronic stop finding devices. Nobody seems to be told about rods
or offiziers or banburismus unless they are really going to do something about
it.[86]
During this trip, he also
assisted at Bell
Labs with
the development of secure speech devices.[87] He returned to Bletchley
Park in March 1943. During his absence, Hugh Alexander had officially
assumed the position of head of Hut 8, although Alexander had been de
facto head for some time (Turing having little interest in the
day-to-day running of the section). Turing became a general consultant for
cryptanalysis at Bletchley Park.[citation needed]
Alexander wrote of
Turing's contribution:
There should be no
question in anyone's mind that Turing's work was the biggest factor in Hut 8's
success. In the early days, he was the only cryptographer who thought the
problem worth tackling and not only was he primarily responsible for the main
theoretical work within the Hut, but he also shared with Welchman and Keen the
chief credit for the invention of the bombe. It is always difficult to say that
anyone is 'absolutely indispensable', but if anyone was indispensable to Hut 8,
it was Turing. The pioneer's work always tends to be forgotten when experience
and routine later make everything seem easy and many of us in Hut 8 felt that
the magnitude of Turing's contribution was never fully realised by the outside
world.[88]
Turingery[edit]
In July 1942, Turing
devised a technique termed Turingery (or jokingly Turingismus)[89] for use against
the Lorenz
cipher messages
produced by the Germans' new Geheimschreiber (secret writer)
machine. This was a teleprinter rotor cipher attachmentcodenamed Tunny at
Bletchley Park. Turingery was a method of wheel-breaking, i.e., a
procedure for working out the cam settings of Tunny's wheels.[90] He also introduced
the Tunny team to Tommy Flowers who, under the
guidance of Max
Newman,
went on to build the Colossus computer, the world's first
programmable digital electronic computer, which replaced a simpler prior
machine (the Heath Robinson), and whose superior
speed allowed the statistical decryption techniques to be applied usefully to
the messages.[91] Some have
mistakenly said that Turing was a key figure in the design of the Colossus
computer. Turingery and the statistical approach of Banburismus undoubtedly fed
into the thinking about cryptanalysis of the Lorenz cipher,[92][93] but he was not
directly involved in the Colossus development.[94]
Delilah[edit]
Following his work at
Bell Labs in the US,[95] Turing pursued the
idea of electronic enciphering of speech in the telephone system, and in the
latter part of the war, he moved to work for the Secret Service's Radio
Security Service (later HMGCC) at Hanslope Park. There he further
developed his knowledge of electronics with the assistance of engineer Donald
Bayley. Together they undertook the design and construction of a portable secure voice communications
machine codenamed Delilah.[96] It was intended for
different applications, lacking capability for use with long-distance radio
transmissions, and in any case, Delilah was completed too late to be used
during the war. Though the system worked fully, with Turing demonstrating it to
officials by encrypting and decrypting a recording of a Winston Churchill speech, Delilah was
not adopted for use.[97] Turing also consulted
with Bell Labs on the development of SIGSALY, a secure voice system
that was used in the later years of the war.
Early
computers and the Turing test[edit]
Plaque, 78 High
Street, Hampton
Between 1945 and 1947,
Turing lived in Hampton, London,[98] while he worked on
the design of the ACE (Automatic
Computing Engine) at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL). He presented a paper on
19 February 1946, which was the first detailed design of a stored-program computer.[99] Von Neumann's incomplete First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC had predated
Turing's paper, but it was much less detailed and, according to John R. Womersley, Superintendent of the
NPL Mathematics Division, it "contains a number of ideas which are Dr.
Turing's own".[100] Although ACE was a
feasible design, the secrecy surrounding the wartime work at Bletchley Park led
to delays in starting the project and he became disillusioned. In late 1947 he
returned to Cambridge for a sabbatical year during which he produced a seminal
work on Intelligent Machinery that was not published in his
lifetime.[101] While
he was at Cambridge, the Pilot ACE was being built in
his absence. It executed its first program on 10 May 1950, and a number of
later computers around the world owe much to it, including the English Electric DEUCE and the
American Bendix
G-15.
The full version of Turing's ACE was not built until after his death.[102]
According to the memoirs
of the German computer pioneer Heinz Billing from the Max Planck Institute for Physics, published by Genscher,
Düsseldorf, there was a meeting between Turing and Konrad Zuse.[103] It
took place in Göttingen in 1947. The
interrogation had the form of a colloquium. Participants were Womersley,
Turing, Porter from England and a few German researchers like Zuse, Walther,
and Billing (for more details see Herbert Bruderer, Konrad Zuse und die
Schweiz).
Turing was
appointed Reader in the Mathematics Department at the Victoria University of Manchester in 1948 and in
1949, became Deputy Director of the Computing Machine Laboratory there, working
on software for one of the earliest stored-program computers—the Manchester Mark 1. During this time he continued
to do more abstract work in mathematics,[104] and in "Computing Machinery and Intelligence" (Mind, October 1950), Turing
addressed the problem of artificial intelligence, and proposed an
experiment that became known as the Turing test, an attempt to define a
standard for a machine to be called "intelligent". The idea was that
a computer could be said to "think" if a human interrogator could not
tell it apart, through conversation, from a human being.[105] In the paper,
Turing suggested that rather than building a program to simulate the adult
mind, it would be better rather to produce a simpler one to simulate a child's
mind and then to subject it to a course of education. A reversed form of the Turing
test is widely used on the Internet; the CAPTCHA test is intended to
determine whether the user is a human or a computer.
In 1948 Turing, working
with his former undergraduate colleague, D.G. Champernowne, began writing a chess program for a
computer that did not yet exist. By 1950, the program was completed and dubbed
the Turbochamp.[106] In
1952, he tried to implement it on a Ferranti Mark 1, but lacking enough
power, the computer was unable to execute the program. Instead, Turing
"ran" the program by flipping through the pages of the algorithm and
carrying out its instructions on a chessboard, taking about half an hour per
move. The game was recorded.[107] According to Garry Kasparov, Turing's program
"played a recognizable game of chess."[108] The
program lost to Turing's colleague Alick Glennie, although it is said
that it won a game against Champernowne's wife, Isabel.[109]
His Turing test was a
significant, characteristically provocative, and lasting contribution to the
debate regarding artificial intelligence, which continues after more than half
a century.[110] He also invented
the LU decomposition method in 1948,[104] used today for
solving matrix equations.[111]
Pattern
formation and mathematical biology[edit]
In 1951, when Turing was
39 years old, he turned to mathematical biology, finally publishing his
masterpiece "The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis" in January 1952.
He was interested in morphogenesis, the development of
patterns and shapes in biological organisms. Among other things, he wanted to
understand Fibonacci phyllotaxis, the existence of Fibonacci numbers in plant
structures.[112] He suggested that a
system of chemicals reacting with each other and diffusing across space, termed
a reaction-diffusion system, could account for
"the main phenomena of morphogenesis".[113] He used systems
of partial differential equationsto model catalytic
chemical reactions. For example, if a catalyst A is required for a certain
chemical reaction to take place, and if the reaction produced more of the
catalyst A, then we say that the reaction is autocatalytic, and there is positive
feedback that can be modelled by nonlinear differential equations. Turing
discovered that patterns could be created if the chemical reaction not only
produced catalyst A, but also produced an inhibitor B that slowed down the
production of A. If A and B then diffused through the
container at different rates, then you could have some regions where A
dominated and some where B did. To calculate the extent of this, Turing would
have needed a powerful computer, but these were not so freely available in
1951, so he had to use linear approximations to solve the equations by hand.
These calculations gave the right qualitative results, and produced, for
example, a uniform mixture that oddly enough had regularly spaced fixed red
spots. The Russian biochemist Boris Belousov had performed
experiments with similar results, but could not get his papers published
because of the contemporary prejudice that any such thing violated the second law of thermodynamics. Belousov was not aware
of Turing's paper in the Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society.[114]
Although published before
the structure and role of DNA was understood,
Turing's work on morphogenesis remains relevant today, and is considered a
seminal piece of work in mathematical biology.[115] One
of the early applications of Turing's paper was the work by James Murray
explaining spots and stripes on the fur of cats, large and small.[116][117][118] Further research in
the area suggests that Turing's work can partially explain the growth of "feathers,
hair follicles, the branching pattern of lungs, and even the left-right
asymmetry that puts the heart on the left side of the chest."[119] In 2012, Sheth, et
al. found that in mice, removal of Hox genes causes an increase in the number
of digits without an increase in the overall size of the limb, suggesting that
Hox genes control digit formation by tuning the wavelength of a Turing-type
mechanism.[120] Later papers were
not available until Collected Works of A. M. Turing was
published in 1992.[121]
Personal life[edit]
In 1941, Turing proposed
marriage to Hut 8 colleague Joan Clarke, a fellow mathematician
and cryptanalyst, but their engagement was short-lived. After admitting his
homosexuality to his fiancée, who was reportedly "unfazed" by the
revelation, Turing decided that he could not go through with the marriage.[122]
Conviction
for indecency[edit]
In January 1952, Turing,
then 39, started a relationship with Arnold Murray, a 19-year-old unemployed
man. Turing had met Murray just before Christmas outside the Regal Cinema when walking down
Manchester's Oxford
Road and
invited him to lunch. On 23 January, Turing's house was burgled. Murray told
Turing that the burglar was an acquaintance of his, and Turing reported the
crime to the police. During the investigation he acknowledged a sexual
relationship with Murray. Homosexual acts were criminal offences in the United
Kingdom at that time,[123] and both men were
charged with "gross indecency" under Section 11 of the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885.[124] Initial committal proceedings for the trial were
held on 27 February during which Turing's solicitor "reserved his
defence", i.e., did not argue or provide evidence against the allegations.
Later, convinced by the
advice of his brother and his own solicitor, Turing entered a plea of guilty.[125] The
case, Regina v. Turing and
Murray, was
brought to trial on 31 March 1952.[126] Turing was
convicted and given a choice between imprisonment and probation, which would be
conditional on his agreement to undergo hormonal treatment designed
to reduce libido. He accepted the option
of treatment via injections of what was then called stilboestrol (now known
as diethylstilbestrol or DES), a
synthetic oestrogen; this treatment was
continued for the course of one year. The treatment rendered Turing impotent and caused gynaecomastia,[127] fulfilling in the
literal sense Turing's prediction that "no doubt I shall emerge from it
all a different man, but quite who I've not found out".[128][129] Murray was given a
conditional discharge.[130]
Turing's conviction led
to the removal of his security clearance and barred him from continuing with
his cryptographic consultancy for the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), the
British signals intelligence agency that had
evolved from GC&CS in 1946, though he kept his academic job. He was denied
entry into the United States after his conviction in 1952, but was free to
visit other European countries. Turing was never accused of espionage but, in
common with all who had worked at Bletchley Park, he was prevented by the Official Secrets Act from discussing his
war work.[131]
Death[edit]
On 8 June 1954, Turing's
housekeeper found him dead. He had died the previous day. A post-mortem examination
established that the cause of death was cyanide poisoning.[132] When his body was
discovered, an apple lay half-eaten beside his bed, and although the apple was
not tested for cyanide,[133] it was speculated
that this was the means by which a fatal dose was consumed. An inquest determined that he
had committed suicide, and he was cremated at Woking Crematorium on 12 June 1954.[134] Turing's ashes were
scattered there, just as his father's had been. Andrew Hodges and another
biographer, David
Leavitt,
have both suggested that Turing was re-enacting a scene from the Walt Disney film Snow White and the Seven
Dwarfs (1937),
his favourite fairy tale, both noting that (in Leavitt's words) he took
"an especially keen pleasure in the scene where the Wicked Queen immerses
her apple in the poisonous brew."[135]
Philosophy
professor Jack
Copeland has
questioned various aspects of the coroner's historical verdict. He suggests an
alternative explanation for the cause of Turing's death, this being the
accidental inhalation of cyanide fumes from an apparatus for electroplating gold onto spoons,
which uses potassium cyanide to dissolve the gold. Turing had such an
apparatus set up in his tiny spare room. Copeland notes that the autopsy
findings were more consistent with inhalation than with ingestion of the poison.
Turing also habitually ate an apple before bed, and it was not unusual for it
to be discarded half-eaten.[136] In addition, Turing
had reportedly borne his legal setbacks and hormone treatment (which had been
discontinued a year previously) "with good humour" and had shown no
sign of despondency prior to his death, even setting down a list of tasks he
intended to complete upon return to his office after the holiday weekend.[136] Turing's mother
believed that the ingestion was accidental, resulting from her son's careless
storage of laboratory chemicals.[137] Biographer Andrew
Hodges suggests Turing arranged the delivery of the equipment to deliberately
allow his mother plausible deniability regarding any
suicide claims.[138]
Turing's OBE currently
held in Sherborne
Schoolarchives
Government
apology and pardon[edit]
In August 2009, British
programmer John Graham-Cumming started a petition
urging the British government to apologise for Turing's prosecution as a
homosexual.[139][140] The petition
received more than 30,000 signatures.[141][142] The Prime
Minister, Gordon
Brown,
acknowledged the petition, releasing a statement on 10 September 2009
apologising and describing the treatment of Turing as "appalling":[141][143]
Thousands of people have
come together to demand justice for Alan Turing and recognition of the
appalling way he was treated. While Turing was dealt with under the law of the
time and we can't put the clock back, his treatment was of course utterly
unfair and I am pleased to have the chance to say how deeply sorry I and we all
are for what happened to him ... So on behalf of the British government,
and all those who live freely thanks to Alan's work I am very proud to say:
we're sorry, you deserved so much better.[141][144]
In December 2011, William
Jones created an e-petition[145] requesting that the
British government pardon Turing for his
conviction of "gross indecency":[146]
We ask the HM Government
to grant a pardon to Alan Turing for the conviction of "gross indecency".
In 1952, he was convicted of "gross indecency" with another man and
was forced to undergo so-called "organo-therapy"—chemical castration.
Two years later, he killed himself with cyanide, aged just 41. Alan Turing was
driven to a terrible despair and early death by the nation he'd done so much to
save. This remains a shame on the British government and British history. A
pardon can go some way to healing this damage. It may act as an apology to many
of the other gay men, not as well-known as Alan Turing, who were subjected to
these laws.[145]
The petition gathered
over 37,000 signatures,[18][145] and was supported
by Manchester MP John Leech but the request was
discouraged by Justice Minister Lord McNally, who said:[147]
A posthumous pardon was
not considered appropriate as Alan Turing was properly convicted of what at the
time was a criminal offence. He would have known that his offence was against
the law and that he would be prosecuted. It is tragic that Alan Turing was
convicted of an offence that now seems both cruel and
absurd—particularly poignant given his outstanding contribution to the war
effort. However, the law at the time required a prosecution and, as such,
long-standing policy has been to accept that such convictions took place and,
rather than trying to alter the historical context and to put right what cannot
be put right, ensure instead that we never again return to those times.[148]
John Leech, the MP for Manchester Withington (2005–15),
submitted several bills to Parliament[149] and campaigned with
Jones to secure the pardon. Leech made the case in the House of Commons that
Turing's contribution to the war made him a national hero and that it was
"ultimately just embarrassing" that the conviction still stood.[150] Leech continued to
take the bill through Parliament and campaigned for several years until it was
passed.[151]
At the UK premiere of a
film based on Turing's life, The Imitation Game, the producers thanked
Leech for bringing the topic to public attention and securing Turing's pardon.[152] His campaign turned
to acquiring pardons for the 75,000 other men convicted of the same crime.
Leech's campaign gained public support from leading scientists, including Stephen Hawking.[153]
On 26 July 2012, a bill
was introduced in the House of Lords to grant a
statutory pardon to Turing for offences under section 11 of the Criminal Law
Amendment Act 1885, of which he was convicted on 31 March 1952.[154] Late in the year in
a letter to The Daily Telegraph, the physicist Stephen
Hawking and 10 other signatories including the Astronomer Royal Lord Rees, President of the Royal Society Sir Paul Nurse, Lady Trumpington (who worked for
Turing during the war) and Lord Sharkey (the bill's
sponsor) called on Prime Minister David Cameron to act on the
pardon request.[155] The government
indicated it would support the bill,[156][157][158] and it passed its
third reading in the Lords in October.[159]
At the bill's second
reading in the House of Commons on 29 November
2013, Conservative MP Christopher Chope objected to the
bill, delaying its passage. The bill was due to return to the House of Commons on
28 February 2014,[160] but before the bill
could be debated in the House of Commons,[161] the government
elected to proceed under the royal prerogative of mercy. On 24 December
2013, Queen
Elizabeth II signed
a pardon for Turing's conviction for "gross indecency", with
immediate effect.[17] Announcing the
pardon, Lord Chancellor Chris Grayling said Turing
deserved to be "remembered and recognised for his fantastic contribution
to the war effort" and not for his later criminal conviction.[16][18] The Queen
officially pronounced Turing pardoned in August 2014.[162] The Queen's action
is only the fourth royal pardon granted since the conclusion of the Second
World War.[163] Pardons are
normally granted only when the person is technically innocent, and a request
has been made by the family or other interested party; neither condition was
met in regard to Turing's conviction.[164]
In a letter to the Prime
Minister, David
Cameron,
human rights advocate Peter Tatchell criticised the
decision to single out Turing due to his fame and achievements when thousands
of others convicted under the same law have not received pardons.[165]Tatchell also called for
a new investigation into Turing's death:
A new inquiry is long
overdue, even if only to dispel any doubts about the true cause of his
death—including speculation that he was murdered by the security services (or
others). I think murder by state agents is unlikely. There is no known evidence
pointing to any such act. However, it is a major failing that this possibility
has never been considered or investigated.[166]
In September 2016, the
government announced its intention to expand this retroactive exoneration to
other men convicted of similar historical indecency offences, in what was
described as an "Alan Turing law".[167][168] The Alan Turing law is now an informal
term for the law in the United Kingdom, contained in the Policing and Crime Act 2017, which serves as
an amnesty
law to
retroactively pardon men who were cautioned or convicted under historical
legislation that outlawed homosexual acts. The law applies in England and
Wales.[169]
Awards, honours, and tributes[edit]
The Alan Turing Building at the University
of Manchester
Turing was appointed to
the Order of the British Empire 1946.[74] He was also elected
a Fellow of the Royal
Society (FRS) in 1951.[7] Several things are
named in his honour:
·
Good–Turing frequency estimation
·
Turing fixed-point combinator
Posthumous
tributes[edit]
Various institutions have
paid tribute to Turing by naming things after him including:
·
The computer room at King's College, Cambridge, Turing's alma mater, is
called the Turing Room.[170]
·
The Turing Room at the University of Edinburgh's
School of Informatics houses a bust of Turing by Eduardo Paolozzi, and a set (No. 42/50)
of his Turing prints (2000).[171]
·
The University of Surrey has a statue of
Turing on their main piazza[172] and one of the
buildings of Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences is named after him.[173]
·
Istanbul Bilgi University organises an annual
conference on the theory of computation called "Turing Days".[174]
·
The University of Texas at Austin has an honours
computer science programme named the Turing Scholars.[175]
·
In the early 1960s, Stanford University named the sole
lecture room of the Polya Hall Mathematics building "Alan Turing
Auditorium".[176]
·
One of the amphitheatres of the Computer
Science department (LIFL[177]) at the University of Lille in northern France
is named in honour of Alan M. Turing (the other amphitheatre is named
after Kurt
Gödel).
·
The University of Washington has a computer
laboratory named after Turing.[178]
·
Oxford Brookes University,[179] the University of Manchester, the Open University, the University of Wolverhampton and Aarhus University (in Aarhus, Denmark) all have
buildings named after Turing.[citation needed]
·
Alan Turing Road in the Surrey Research Park[173] and the Alan Turing
Way, part of the Manchester inner ring road. Alan Turing road in Loughborough[180] are named after
Turing.
·
Carnegie Mellon University has a granite
bench, situated in the Hornbostel Mall, with the name "A.M. Turing"
carved across the top, "Read" down the left leg, and
"Write" down the other.[181]
·
The University of Oregon has a bust of
Turing on the side of Deschutes Hall, the computer science building.[182]
·
The École Polytechnique
Fédérale de Lausanne has a road and a square named after
Turing (Chemin Alan Turing and Place Alan Turing).[183]
·
The Faculty of Informatics
and Information Technologies Slovak University of Technology
in Bratislava, Slovakia, has a lecture room
named "Turing Auditorium".[184]
·
The Paris Diderot University has a lecture room
named "Amphithéâtre Turing".[185]
·
The Faculty of Mathematics and Computer
Science at the University of Würzburg has a lecture hall
named "Turing Hörsaal".[186]
·
The Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse has a
lecture room named "Amphithéâtre Turing" (Bâtiment U4).[187]
·
The largest conference hall at the Amsterdam Science Park is named
Turingzaal.[188]
·
King's College London's School of Natural and
Mathematical Sciences awards the Alan Turing Centenary Prize.[189]
·
The University of Kent named the Turing
College after him at their Canterbury campus.[190]
·
The campus of the École polytechnique has a building
named after Turing; it is a research centre whose premises are shared by
the École Polytechnique, the INRIA and Microsoft.[191][citation needed]
·
The University of Toronto developed the Turing programming language in 1982, named
after Turing.
·
The campus of State University of Campinas in Brazil has an
avenue, one of its largest, named after Turing.[192]
·
The Department of Computer Science at Pontifical Catholic University of Chile, the University of Buenos Aires, the Polytechnic University of Puerto Rico, Los Andes University in Bogotá, Colombia, King's College, Cambridge, Bangor University in Wales, the University of Mons in Belgium, the University of Turin (Università degli
Studi di Torino), the University of Puerto Rico at Humacao, Keele University and the Faculty of
Computer Science, Electronics and Telecommunications of AGH University of Science
and Technology, have buildings named after Turing.[citation needed]
·
Ghent University named a computer
room after Turing, in their department of Computer Science and Applied Mathematics.[193]
·
Nvidia unveiled their line
of GeForce Graphics Cards
based on the Turing microarchitecture, which in turn was named
after Turing. The architecture introduces the first consumer products capable
of real-time raytracing, which has been a longstanding goal of the computer
graphics industry.
A biography published by
the Royal
Society shortly
after Turing's death,[7] while his wartime
work was still subject to the Official Secrets Act, recorded:
Three remarkable papers
written just before the war, on three diverse mathematical subjects, show the
quality of the work that might have been produced if he had settled down to
work on some big problem at that critical time. For his work at the Foreign
Office he was awarded the OBE.[7]
Since 1966, the Turing Award has been given
annually by the Association for Computing Machinery for technical or
theoretical contributions to the computing community. It is widely considered to
be the computing world's highest honour, equivalent to the Nobel Prize.[194]
On 23 June 1998, on what
would have been Turing's 86th birthday, his biographer, Andrew Hodges, unveiled an
official English Heritage blue plaque at his birthplace
and childhood home in Warrington Crescent, London, later the Colonnade Hotel.[195][196] To mark the 50th
anniversary of his death, a memorial plaque was unveiled on 7 June 2004 at his
former residence, Hollymeade, in Wilmslow, Cheshire.[197]
A blue plaque marking Turing's
home at Wilmslow, Cheshire
On 13 March 2000, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines issued a set of
postage stamps to celebrate the greatest achievements of the 20th century, one
of which carries a portrait of Turing against a background of repeated 0s and
1s, and is captioned: "1937: Alan Turing's theory of digital
computing". On 1 April 2003, Turing's work at Bletchley Park was named an IEEE Milestone.[198] On 28 October 2004,
a bronze statue of Turing sculpted by John W. Mills was unveiled at
the University of Surrey in Guildford, marking the 50th
anniversary of Turing's death; it portrays him carrying his books across the
campus.[172]
Turing was one of four
mathematicians examined in the BBC documentary entitled Dangerous
Knowledge (2008).[199] The Princeton Alumni Weekly named Turing the
second most significant alumnus in the history of Princeton University, second only to
President James
Madison.
A 1.5-ton, life-size statue of Turing was unveiled on 19 June 2007 at Bletchley
Park. Built from approximately half a million pieces of Welsh slate, it was sculpted
by Stephen
Kettle,
having been commissioned by the American billionaire Sidney Frank.[200]
Turing has been honoured
in various ways in Manchester, the city where he
worked towards the end of his life. In 1994, a stretch of the A6010 road (the Manchester city intermediate
ring road) was named "Alan Turing Way". A bridge carrying this road
was widened, and carries the name Alan Turing Bridge. A statue of Turing was unveiled in
Manchester on 23 June 2001 in Sackville Park, between the University
of Manchester building on Whitworth Street and Canal Street. The memorial statue
depicts the "father of computer science" sitting on a bench at a
central position in the park. Turing is shown holding an apple. The cast bronze
bench carries in relief the text 'Alan Mathison Turing 1912–1954',
and the motto 'Founder of Computer Science' as it could appear if
encoded by an Enigma
machine:
'IEKYF ROMSI ADXUO KVKZC GUBJ'. However, the meaning of the coded message is
disputed, as the 'u' in 'computer' matches up with the 'u' in 'ADXUO'. As a
letter encoded by an enigma machine can not appear as itself, the actual
message behind the code is uncertain.[201]
Turing memorial statue
plaque in Sackville Park, Manchester
A plaque at the statue's
feet reads 'Father of computer science, mathematician, logician, wartime
codebreaker, victim of prejudice'. There is also a Bertrand Russell quotation:
"Mathematics, rightly viewed, possesses not only truth, but supreme
beauty—a beauty cold and austere, like that of sculpture." The sculptor
buried his own old Amstrad computer under
the plinth as a tribute to
"the godfather of all modern computers".[202]
In 1999, Time magazine named
Turing as one of the 100 Most Important People
of the 20th century and stated, "The fact remains that everyone
who taps at a keyboard, opening a spreadsheet or a word-processing program, is
working on an incarnation of a Turing machine."[8]
In 2002, Turing was
ranked twenty-first on the BBC's poll of the 100 Greatest Britonsfollowing a UK-wide vote.[203] In 2006, British
writer and mathematician Ioan James chose Turing as one
of twenty people to feature in his book about famous historical figures who may
have had some of the traits of Asperger syndrome.[204] In
2010, actor/playwright Jade Esteban Estrada portrayed Turing in
the solo musical, Icons: The Lesbian and Gay History of the World, Vol.
4. In 2011, in The Guardian's "My hero"
series, writer Alan
Garner chose
Turing as his hero and described how they had met while out jogging in the
early 1950s. Garner remembered Turing as "funny and witty" and said
that he "talked endlessly".[205] In
2006, Turing was named with online resources as an LGBT History Month Icon.[206] In
2006, Boston Pridenamed Turing their
Honorary Grand Marshal.[207]
Turing memorial statue
in Sackville
Park,
Manchester
The logo of Apple Inc. is often
erroneously referred to as a tribute to Turing, with the bite mark a reference
to his death.[208] Both the designer
of the logo[209] and the company
deny that there is any homage to Turing in the design.[210][211] Stephen Fry has recounted
asking Steve
Jobswhether
the design was intentional, saying that Jobs' response was, "God, we wish
it were."[212] In February 2011,
Turing's papers from the Second World War were bought for the nation with an
11th-hour bid by the National Heritage Memorial Fund, allowing them to stay
at Bletchley Park.[213]
In 2012, Turing was
inducted into the Legacy Walk, an outdoor public
display that celebrates LGBT history and people.[214][215]
The song "Alan et la
Pomme", by francophone singer-songwriter Salvatore Adamo, is a tribute to Turing.[216] Turing's life and
work featured in a BBC children's programme about famous scientists, Absolute Genius with Dick and Dom, first broadcast on 12
March 2014.
On 17 May 2014, the
world's first work of public art to recognise Turing as gay was commissioned in
Bletchley, close by to Bletchley Park where his war-time work was carried out.
The commission was announced to mark International Day Against
Homophobia and Transphobia. The work was unveiled at a ceremony on Turing's
birthday, 23 June 2014, and is placed alongside busy Watling Street, the old
main road to London, where Turing himself would have passed by on many occasions.
On 22 October 2014, Turing was inducted into the NSA Hall of Honor.[217][218]
Centenary
celebrations[edit]
Main
article: Alan Turing Year
David Chalmers on stage for an
Alan Turing Year conference at De La Salle University, Manila, 27 March 2012
To mark the 100th
anniversary of Turing's birth, the Turing Centenary Advisory Committee (TCAC)
co-ordinated the Alan Turing Year, a year-long programme
of events around the world honouring Turing's life and achievements. The TCAC,
chaired by S.
Barry Cooperwith
Turing's nephew Sir John Dermot Turing acting as Honorary President, worked
with the University of Manchester faculty members and a broad spectrum of
people from Cambridge University and Bletchley Park.
On 23 June 2012, Google
featured an interactive doodle where visitors had
to change the instructions of a Turing Machine, so when run,
the symbols on the tape would match a provided sequence, featuring
"Google" in Baudot-Murray
code.[219]
The Bletchley Park Trust
collaborated with Winning Moves to publish an Alan
Turing edition of the board game Monopoly. The game's squares and
cards have been revised to tell the story of Turing's life, from his birthplace
in Maida Vale to Hut 8 at Bletchley Park.[220] The game also
includes a replica of an original hand-drawn board created by William Newman, son of Turing's
mentor, Max
Newman,
which Turing played on in the 1950s.[221]
In the Philippines, the Department of Philosophy at De La Salle University-Manila hosted Turing
2012, an international conference on philosophy, artificial intelligence, and
cognitive science from 27 to 28 March 2012 to commemorate the centenary birth
of Turing.[222][223] Madurai, India held celebrations
with a programme attended by 6,000 students.[224]
The London 2012 Olympic Torchflame was passed on in
front of Turing's statue in Manchester on his 100th birthday.
There was a three-day
conference in Manchester in June, the Alan Turing Centenary Conference, a two-day conference in
San Francisco, organised by the ACM, and a birthday party and Turing Centenary
Conference in Cambridge organised at King's College, Cambridge, and the University of
Cambridge, the latter organised by the association Computability in Europe.[225]
The Science Museum in London launched a free
exhibition devoted to Turing's life and achievements in June 2012, to run until
July 2013.[226] In February 2012,
the Royal
Mailissued
a stamp featuring Turing as part of its "Britons of Distinction"
series.[227] The London 2012 Olympic Torch flame was passed on
in front of Turing's statue in Sackville Gardens, Manchester, on the
evening of 23 June 2012, the 100th anniversary of his birth.
On 22 June 2012 Manchester City Council, in partnership with
the Lesbian and Gay
Foundation,
launched the Alan Turing Memorial Award, which will recognise individuals or
groups who have made a significant contribution to the fight against homophobia
in Manchester.[228]
At the University of Oxford, a new course in Computer Science and Philosophy was
established to coincide with the centenary of Turing's birth.[229]
Previous events have
included a celebration of Turing's life and achievements, at the University of
Manchester, arranged by the British Logic Colloquium and the British Society for the
History of Mathematics on 5 June 2004.[230]
Portrayal[edit]
In theatre[edit]
Benedict Cumberbatchportrayed Turing in the
2014 film The Imitation Game
·
Breaking the Code is a 1986 play
by Hugh
Whitemore about
Turing. The play ran in London's West End beginning in
November 1986 and on Broadway from 15 November 1987 to 10 April 1988. In these
performances Turing was played by Derek Jacobi. The Broadway production
was nominated for three Tony Awards including Best
Actor in a Play, Best Featured Actor in a Play, and Best Direction of a Play,
and for two Drama Desk Awards, for Best Actor and Best
Featured Actor. Turing was again portrayed by Jacobi in the 1996 television film adaptation of Breaking the Code.[231]
·
In 2012, in honour of the Turing
Centennial, American Lyric Theater commissioned an
operatic exploration of the life and death of Turing from composer Justine F.
Chen and librettist David Simpatico.[232] Titled The
Life and Death(s) of Alan Turing, the opera is a historical fantasia on the
life of Turing. In November 2014, the opera and several other artistic works
inspired by Turing's life were featured on Studio 360.[233] The
opera received its first public performance in January 2017.[234]
In literature[edit]
·
In William Gibson's Neuromancer the Turing police
have jurisdiction over AIs. (1984)[235]
·
Turing is featured in the Neal Stephenson novel Cryptonomicon (1999).[236]
·
The 2000 Doctor Who novel The Turing Test
features Turing and the writer Graham Greene.[237]
·
The 2006 novel A Madman Dreams of Turing Machines contrasts
fictionalised accounts of the lives and ideas of Turing and Kurt Gödel.[238]
·
The 2015 novel Speak, written by Louisa Hall, includes a series of
fictional letters written from Turing to his best friend's mother throughout
his life, detailing his research about artificial intelligence.[239][240]
·
In the graphic novel series Über, in which a
fictionalised version of WWII plays out involving superhuman soldiers called
"Tank-Men", Turing is one of the researchers as well as a Tank-Man
himself.[241]
In music[edit]
·
Electronic music duo Matmos released an EP
titled For Alan Turing in 2006, which was based on material
commissioned by Dr. Robert Osserman and David Elsenbud of the Mathematical Sciences Research
Institute.[242] In
one of its tracks, an original Enigma Machine is sampled.[243]
·
In 2012, Spanish group Hidrogenesse dedicated their
LP Un dígito binario dudoso. Recital para Alan Turing (A
dubious binary digit. Concert for Alan Turing) to the memory of the
mathematician.[244]
·
A musical work inspired by Turing's life,
written by Neil
Tennant and Chris Lowe of the Pet Shop Boys, entitled A Man
from the Future, was announced in late 2013.[245] It was performed by
the Pet Shop Boys and Juliet Stevenson (narrator), the BBC
Singers, and the BBC Concert Orchestra conducted by Dominic Wheeler at
the BBC
Proms in
the Royal Albert Hall on 23 July 2014.[246]
·
Codebreaker is also the title
of a choral work by the composer James McCarthy. It includes settings of texts
by the poets Wilfred
Owen, Sara Teasdale, Walt Whitman, Oscar Wilde and Robert Burns that are used to
illustrate aspects of Turing's life. It was premiered on 26 April 2014 at
the Barbican
Centre in
London, where it was performed by the Hertfordshire Chorus, who commissioned the
work, led by David
Temple with
the soprano soloist Naomi Harvey providing the voice of Turing's mother.[247][248]
In film[edit]
·
Codebreaker, original UK title Britain's
Greatest Codebreaker, is a TV film that aired on 21 November 2011 by Channel 4 about Turing's
life. It had a limited release in the US beginning on 17 October 2012. The
story is told as a discussion between Turing and his psychiatrist Dr. Franz
Greenbaum. The story is based on journals maintained by Greenbaum and others
who have studied Turing's life as well as some of his colleagues.[249]
·
The historical drama film The Imitation Game, directed by Morten Tyldum and starring Benedict Cumberbatch as Turing and Keira Knightley as Joan Clarke, was released in the UK
on 14 November 2014 and released theatrically in the US on 28 November 2014. It
is about Turing breaking the Enigma code with other
codebreakers in Bletchley Park.[250][251][252][253]
See also[edit]
·
List of things named after Alan Turing
References[edit]
1. ^ Cooper, Prof S.
Barry (7 October 2014). "The Imitation Game:
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9. ^ Sipser 2006, p. 137
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12. ^ A number of sources
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contribution to Allied victory in the war against Nazi Germany. However
both The Churchill Centre and Turing's
biographer Andrew
Hodges have
said they know of no documentary evidence to support
this claim nor of the date or context in which Churchill supposedly said it,
and the Churchill Centre lists it among their Churchill 'Myths', see Schilling,
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13. ^ See for
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Sources[edit]
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Agar, Jon (2001). Turing and the
Universal Machine. Duxford: Icon. ISBN 978-1840462500.
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Agar, Jon (2003). The government
machine: a revolutionary history of the computer. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT
Press. ISBN 978-0262012027.
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Alexander, C. Hugh O'D. (c. 1945). "Cryptographic
History of Work on the German Naval Enigma". The National Archives,
Kew, Reference HW 25/1.
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Beavers, Anthony (2013). "Alan Turing:
Mathematical Mechanist". In Cooper, S. Barry; van Leeuwen, Jan. Alan Turing: His Work and
Impact.
Waltham: Elsevier. pp. 481–485. ISBN 978-0123869807.
·
Beniger, James (1986). The control revolution:
technological and economic origins of the information society. Cambridge,
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Babbage, Charles (1864). Campbell-Kelly, Martin, ed. Passages from
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Bodanis, David (2005). Electric
Universe: How Electricity Switched on the Modern World. New York: Three Rivers
Press. ISBN 0307335984. OCLC 61684223.
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Bruderer, Herbert: Konrad Zuse und die
Schweiz. Wer hat den Computer erfunden? Charles Babbage, Alan Turing und John
von NeumannOldenbourg Verlag, München 2012, XXVI, 224 Seiten, ISBN 978-3486713664
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Campbell-Kelly, Martin; Aspray, William
(1996). Computer: A History of the Information Machine. New York: Basic
Books. ISBN 0465029892.
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Ceruzzi, Paul (1998). A
History of Modern Computing. Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London: MIT
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Chandler, Alfred (1977). The
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Cooper, S. Barry; van Leeuwen, Jan
(2013). Alan Turing: His Work and Impact. New York: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0123869807.
·
Copeland, B. Jack (2004a).
"Colossus: Its Origins and Originators". IEEE Annals of the
History of Computing. 26 (4): 38–45. doi:10.1109/MAHC.2004.26.
·
Copeland, B. Jack (ed.) (2004b). The
Essential Turing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198250797. OCLC 156728127.
·
Copeland (ed.), B. Jack (2005). Alan
Turing's Automatic Computing Engine. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198565933. OCLC 224640979.
·
Copeland, B. Jack (2006). Colossus:
The secrets of Bletchley Park's code-breaking computers. Oxford University
Press. ISBN 978-0192840554.
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Hilton, Peter (2006).
"Living with Fish: Breaking Tunny in the Newmanry and
Testery". Colussus. in Copeland 2006, pp. 189–203
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Edwards, Paul N (1996). The closed
world: computers and the politics of discourse in Cold War America. Cambridge,
Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN 0262550288.
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Gannon, Paul (2007) [2006]. Colossus:
Bletchley Park's Greatest Secret. London: Atlantic Books. ISBN 978-1843543312.
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Hodges, Andrew (1983). Alan Turing : the enigma. London: Burnett Books. ISBN 0091521300.
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Hochhuth, Rolf (1988). Alan
Turing: en berättelse. Symposion. ISBN 978-91-7868-109-9.
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Leavitt, David (2007). The
man who knew too much: Alan Turing and the invention of the computer.
Phoenix. ISBN 978-0753822005.
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Levin, Janna (2006). A Madman Dreams of Turing Machines. New York: Knopf. ISBN 978-1400032402.
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Lewin, Ronald (1978). Ultra
Goes to War: The Secret Story. Classic Military History (Classic Penguin ed.). London: Hutchinson & Co (published 2001). ISBN 978-1566492317.
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Lubar, Steven (1993). Infoculture.
Boston, Massachusetts and New York: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0395570425.
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Mahon, A.P. (1945). "The History of Hut
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Oakley, Brian, ed. (2006). The
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O'Connell, H; Fitzgerald, M (2003).
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Journal of Psychological Medicine. Irish Institute of Psychological
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O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Alan Mathison
Turing", MacTutor History of
Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews.
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Petzold, Charles (2008). "The Annotated Turing: A Guided Tour through
Alan Turing's Historic Paper on Computability and the Turing
Machine". Indianapolis: Wiley Publishing. ISBN 978-0470229057
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Smith, Roger (1997). Fontana History of the Human
Sciences. London: Fontana.
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Sipser, Michael (2006). Introduction
to the Theory of Computation. PWS Publishing. ISBN 0534950973.
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Weizenbaum, Joseph (1976). Computer Power and
Human Reason. London: W.H. Freeman. ISBN 0716704633
·
Turing, A.M. (1937) [Delivered to the
Society November 1936]. "On Computable
Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem" (PDF). Proceedings of the
London Mathematical Society. 2. 42. pp. 230–65. doi:10.1112/plms/s2-42.1.230. and Turing,
A.M. (1938). "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem:
A correction". Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society.
2. 43 (published 1937). pp. 544–46. doi:10.1112/plms/s2-43.6.544.
·
Turing, Sara Stoney (1959). Alan M
Turing. W Heffer. Turing's mother, who survived him by many years,
wrote this 157-page biography of her son, glorifying his life. It was published
in 1959, and so could not cover his war work. Scarcely 300 copies were sold
(Sara Turing to Lyn Newman, 1967, Library of St John's College, Cambridge). The six-page foreword
by Lyn
Irvine includes
reminiscences and is more frequently quoted. It was re-published by Cambridge
University Press in 2012, to honour the centenary of his birth, and included a
new foreword by Martin
Davis,
as well as a never-before-published memoir by Turing's older brother John F.
Turing.
·
Whitemore, Hugh; Hodges, Andrew (1988). Breaking
the code. S. French. This 1986 Hugh Whitemore play tells the story of
Turing's life and death. In the original West End and Broadway runs, Derek Jacobi played Turing and
he recreated the role in a 1997 television film based on the play made jointly
by the BBC and WGBH,
Boston.
The play is published by Amber Lane Press, Oxford, ASIN: B000B7TM0Q
·
Williams, Michael R. (1985) A History of
Computing Technology, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, ISBN 0818677392
·
Yates, David M. (1997). Turing's
Legacy: A history of computing at the National Physical Laboratory 1945–1995.
London: London Science Museum. ISBN 0901805947. OCLC 123794619.
Further reading[edit]
Articles[edit]
·
Turing, Alan (1950). "Computing Machinery
and Intelligence" (PDF). Mind. 49:
433–460.
·
Copeland, B. Jack (ed.). "The Mind and the
Computing Machine: Alan Turing and others". The Rutherford Journal.
·
Copeland, B. Jack (ed.). "Alan Turing: Father
of the Modern Computer". The Rutherford Journal.
·
Hodges, Andrew (27 August 2007). "Alan Turing". In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2009 ed.). Stanford University. Retrieved 10
January 2011.
·
Hodges, Andrew (2004). "Turing, Alan
Mathison". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/36578. (Subscription or UK public library
membership required.)
·
Gray, Paul (29 March 1999). "Computer Scientist:
Alan Turing". Time.
Books[edit]
·
Bernhardt, Chris (2017), Turing's
Vision: The Birth of Computer Science, MIT Press, ISBN 978-0262533515
·
Copeland, B. Jack; Bowen, Jonathan P.; Wilson, Robin; Sprevak, Mark
(2017). The Turing Guide. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198747833.
·
Dyson, George (2012). Turing's
Cathedral: The Origins of the Digital Universe. Vintage. ISBN 978-1400075997.
·
Gleick, James (2011). The Information: A
History, a Theory, a Flood. New York: Pantheon. ISBN 978-0375423727.
·
Hodges, Andrew (2014). Alan
Turing: The Enigma. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691164724. (originally
published in 1983); basis of the film The Imitation Game
External links[edit]
|
media Commons has media related to Alan Turing. |
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quote has quotations related to: Alan Turing |
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Oral history interview
with Nicholas C. Metropolis, Charles Babbage Institute, University of
Minnesota. Metropolis was the first director of computing services at Los Alamos National Laboratory; topics include the
relationship between Turing and John von Neumann
·
How Alan Turing Cracked
The Enigma Code Imperial War Museums
·
Alan Turing RKBExplorer
·
CiE 2012: Turing Centenary
Conference
·
Science in the Making Alan Turing's
papers in the Royal Society's archives
·
Alan Turing site maintained
by Andrew
Hodges including
a short biography
·
AlanTuring.net –
Turing Archive for the History of Computing by Jack Copeland
·
The Turing Archive – contains scans of
some unpublished documents and material from the King's College, Cambridge
archive
·
Alan Turing Papers, University of Manchester Library, Manchester
·
Jones, G. James (11 December 2001). "Alan Turing –
Towards a Digital Mind: Part 1". System Toolbox.
The Binary Freedom Project. Archived from the original on 3 August 2007.
·
Happy 100th Birthday,
Alan Turing by Stephen Wolfram.
·
Sherborne School Archives – holds papers
relating to Turing's time at Sherborne School
·
Alan Turing plaques recorded on
openplaques.org
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